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Weeks afore U.S. pilots took to the skies aloft Afghanistan aftermost October, they had a appealing acceptable abstraction what they would see there. Already they had logged abounding hours accomplishing basic fly-throughs over the asperous abundance terrain, application a mission alarm arrangement accepted as Topscene (for appropriate operational scene). Congenital for the U.S. Department of Defense by Anteon Corp., Fairfax, Va., Topscene combines aeriform photos, accessory images, and intelligence abstracts to actualize high-resolution three-dimensional databases of a region.

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Seated at computer consoles active on Silicon Cartoon Onyx processors, pilots could anticipate aeriform from arena affiliated up to 12 000 meters, at speeds up to 2250 km/h. The abundant renderings, assuming roads, buildings, and alike vehicles, helped them artifice the best approach, advance for landmarks, and analyze appointed targets.

Topscene is aloof one of abounding able new simulation accoutrement that the U.S. aggressive is application to adapt soldiers and their leaders for battle. Over the aftermost three decades, adult computer clay and graphics, faster processor speeds, and advances in bogus intelligence accept gone into architecture simulation technology that can actualize a absoluteness that stops aloof abbreviate of war.

In turn, the use of simulators has helped accompany about a sea change in aggressive training. Troops today convenance exhaustively, accomplished by simulators not alone how to use their anytime added circuitous equipment, but additionally how to assignment in teams, move calmly through a battlespace, and accommodate a avant-garde ambit of conflicts, which may or may not absorb aggressive force.

Simulation additionally gives aggressive and political leaders acumen into abeyant conflicts. Commanders can now charm on computer the circuitous choreography of bags of soldiers, weapons, vehicles, and aircraft affective beyond a battlefield that extends over bags of aboveboard kilometers. In this way, aggressive decision-makers can analysis cardinal options afore ablution a advance in earnest. They can additionally appraise the achievement of new weapons systems beneath consideration.

The aftereffect has been annihilation beneath than remarkable. Low U.S. casualties in Desert Storm, the Balkans, and now Afghanistan axis in ample allotment from the growing use of training simulators, according to a assignment force of the U.S. Defense Science Board, whose 35 noncombatant associates admonish the Secretary of Defense on affairs of aggressive R&D. In its 2000 report, "Training Superiority and Training Surprise," the assignment force assured that "the new activity training access invented 30 years ago develops, afterwards bloodshed, individuals and units into aces."

The advance adjoin training simulation has additionally spawned a huge industry. According to the barter advertisement Aggressive Training and Simulation News, the U.S. Department of Defense spends about US $4 billion anniversary year on simulation and training equipment. No added country has invested about as much.

And that is aloof the beginning. Today, the Microsoft Xbox and Sony Playstation 2 bold consoles are actuality acclimatized for broadcast and networked aggressive gaming. Meanwhile, an Army-sponsored accumulation of artists, Hollywood special-effects experts, and advisers at the University of Southern California are alive on the abutting bearing of aggressive trainers: immersive virtual-reality environments affiliated to the "Star Trek" holodeck, in which absolute soldiers collaborate with constructed yet life-like actors.

"The about-face from alive ambit training to computer-based training is fundamentally alteration the way we adapt our soldiers for the future," acclaimed W. H. ("Dell") Lunceford Jr., administrator of the Army Archetypal and Simulation Office in Arlington, Va. "Every soldier today needs to accept the amount and the pitfalls of simulation, aloof as he or she charge accept aggressive science."

The banned of alive training

Live training is still the best accepted way of basic troops. The U.S. Navy pioneered this access afterwards activity abstracts appear that a pilot's aboriginal few encounters with the adversary tended to be the deadliest; those who survived that aboriginal appearance were added apt to survive in general. Appropriately was built-in the Navy's Top Gun academy in 1969. Located originally at Miramar Naval Air Station in San Diego, Calif., and now allotment of the Naval Strike Warfare Centermost at Fallon Naval Air Station in Nevada, it accomplished pilots in altitude as abutting to absolute activity as possible.

All the U.S. armed ammunition now accept agnate live-training sites. In contempo years their capability has been additional by avant-garde electronics and instrumentation. At the burghal warfare training apple at Fort Polk, La., for instance, video cameras almanac the activity as Army Rangers and Marines action architecture to architecture and allowance to room. A anatomy of laser tag alleged Miles--for Multiple Chip Laser Engagement System--identifies hits and misses.

At the Army's National Training Centermost in Fort Irwin, Calif., apish armor battles involving bags of troops acerbity beyond the Mojave Desert, and every agent is tracked by the all-around accession arrangement (GPS).

But advancement such a all-inclusive training basement is costly. Aloof alteration a assemblage to a alien area for training can run several amateur dollars. Typically, units absorb aloof three weeks at the site, abiding every 18 months or so. The accessories is additionally pricey. A distinct annular for the infantry-carried Javelin antitank weapon costs over $30 000. A Javelin simulator, in contrast, costs about the aforementioned but can be accursed over and over.

Then, too, the acreage accessible for alive training is limited. While some air-launched missiles can biking 40 km, few training areas are that big. Nor do bounded association abundant acknowledge alive ammunition acclimated so abutting to home, as was fabricated bright in Vieques, Puerto Rico.

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Another affair is the composure of new weapons systems. A pilot operating a Predator unmanned aeriform agent (UAV), for example, sits hundreds or bags of kilometers from his vehicle. He charge apprentice to cross through a camera lens and atone for the adjournment amid his command and the aircraft's response. Not surprisingly, pilots new to UAV flight blast their cartage a lot. Getting a feel for the nuances of telerobotic flight is bigger done with computer simulation, rather than live.

Given alive training's limitations, the aggressive is relying added and added on basic simulations. Such systems accept accurate able for acceptable motor control, as in active a catchbasin or battlefront a rifle; decision-making, as in artful the assets bare for combat; and leadership, as in responding to an ambush.

Virtual war

Even as computer simulations accomplish greater realism, aggressive operations themselves accept become added computer-driven, and added synthetic. From the angle of a Predator pilot, a absolute activity mission feels abundant like a apish one.

The aforementioned holds accurate alike at the accomplished levels of command. In his memoirs, It Doesn't Booty a Hero (Bantam, 1992), Accepted H. Norman Schwarzkopf discussed the training contest conducted aloof afore the Gulf War. Recalling the astonishing similarities amid the apish war game, dubbed Internal Look, and the absolute thing, Schwarzkopf wrote:

"We played Internal Look in backward July 1990, ambience up a apish address complete with computers and admonition accessory at Eglin Air Force Base in the Florida panhandle. As the exercise got beneath way, the movements of Iraq's real-world arena and air ammunition eerily paralleled the abstract book of the game....As the war bold began, the bulletin centermost additionally anesthetized forth accepted intelligence bulletins about the absolute Average East. Those apropos Iraq were so agnate to the bold dispatches that the bulletin centermost concluded up accepting to brand the fabulous letters with a arresting disclaimer: 'Exercise Only.' "

Over the two-week advance of the exercise, U.S. Central Command staff, based at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, Fla., endured all the affecting highs and lows of battle--what virtual- absoluteness advisers alarm "presence." Lessons abstruse from Internal Look shaped the arresting plan for Desert Shield, and collection home the ability of computer simulation in advancing for war.

Such effective simulations, added frequently accepted as war games, accept become a accepted apparatus for aggressive decision-makers who are exploring cardinal options. These simulations generally absorb hundreds of players and are based on circuitous computer-driven models of the battlefield. Absolute bodies accumulation the inputs and the key, high-level decisions; the constructed ammunition they command assassinate the outcomes. Though effective simulations are the brood of chiral lath amateur [see "From Kriegspiel to Simnet,"], the arduous ambit of operations today requires computers alike for the bottom tasks of tracking troop movements, logistics, and intelligence flow.

The abutting bearing of effective simulations are actuality developed beneath the advocacy of the Joint Simulation Arrangement (JSIMS) program. JSIMS is an aggressive accomplishment to affiliate calm disparate war-gaming systems now acclimated by the U.S. Army, Navy, and Air Force, as able-bodied as the intelligence community.

In JSIMS, models apery the land, maritime, air/space, and intelligence bureau domains collaborate in a Joint Constructed Battlespace (JSB), which encompasses the three levels of war--tactical, operational, and strategic. The aboriginal above analysis of the affairs will appear this summer, as allotment of an exercise alleged Millennium Challenge. The accident will accompany calm about 15 000 cadre from all the armed ammunition for accumulated computer and alive operations in the air, on the sea, and on land, extending beyond southern California and Nevada.

With such a all-embracing model, abounding capacity get lost, however. JSIMS may represent an absolute catchbasin aggregation as a distinct entity, and its area databases accept a resolution of alone 100 meters.

A finer-grained appearance is offered by the OneSAF program, actuality developed for the Army by an Orlando, Fla.-based analysis of Science Applications International Corp. SAF is abbreviate for Semi-Automated Forces, and the affairs simulates the behavior of hundreds of tanks and bottom soldiers, abundant like the AI characters a amateur encounters in video games. In a OneSAF simulation, anniversary soldier or tank, apery either affable or adversary forces, assignment apart over 1-meter-resolution terrain. Animal players appropriately get a added astute account of battlefield conditions.

Training Bearing Xbox

Computerized aggressive simulators accept additionally taken authority added bottomward the alternation of command. Not too continued ago, cadets at the U.S. Aggressive Academy at West Point, N.Y., alone apprehend about aggressive strategy; war amateur in the acreage would activate afterwards graduation. Today's academy cadets do activity in basic M1 tanks and infantry application a bartering bold alleged Steel Beasts. The bold lets them convenance alone or in Internet-linked groups; they can face bottomward a computer-simulated enemy, or addition band of cadets.

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Employing these computer simulations has accepted to be a bland alteration for adolescent ancestors of soldiers, who, afterwards all, were beanery fed on Nintendo and computer games. And they apprehend more: accepted PCs can do as abundant as the supercomputers of a decade ago, while the computational beef of bold consoles now far surpasses that of a DEC VAX.

Only a huge advance could accept able the Xbox with its 80 gigaflops of accretion power. Microsoft Corp., Redmond, Wash., reportedly developed it at a amount of over $2 billion. Rather than reinvent the wheel, the Pentagon absitively to adapt it and added consoles and PC-based simulations for its own purposes. The abstraction is not absolutely new. Back in the aboriginal 1980s, the Army briefly experimented with Atari Inc.'s catchbasin bold Battlezone in the hopes of acceptable a gunner's eye-hand coordination. But such efforts never fabricated it to the mainstream.

Perhaps the aboriginal bartering 3-D bold to be acclimated for accumulation aggressive training was the fantasy bold Doom. To actualize its own version, the U.S. Marine Corps Clay and Simulation Management Office edited the bartering bold into an burghal activity scenario. Nonhuman characters--the game's AI bad guys--were adapted from monsters into action forces. Marine Doom, as it came to be known, accomplished concepts like appropriately sequencing an attack, absorption the rifleman, absorption ammunition, and celebratory the alternation of command.

Other amateur accept back been analogously altered. The Army, for instance, commissioned NovaLogic Inc., Calabasas, Calif., to accommodate in its accepted Delta Force 2 bold appearance begin in the Army's Acreage Warrior. Worn by infantry soldiers, Acreage Warrior is a complex, chip arrangement that includes a computer and radio, a GPS receiver, a helmet-mounted LCD display, and a modular weapons arrangement that adds thermal and video architect and laser alignment to the accepted M4 carbine or M16A2 rifle. The Army is now evaluating the game's capability compared to added training methods.

More recently, the Marine Corps has developed training amateur that run on networked laptops. That affection allows Marines to convenance a array of activity roles (pilots, riflemen, catchbasin drivers) and advance their abilities alike while on ship.

In all such basic trainers, the capital advantage over alive training is time. A administrator can restart a training book at any point, and the training can be again until the soldier or assemblage performs the operation correctly.

If the anticipation of soldiers honing their abilities on PlayStations still seems peculiar, accede this. In an all-encompassing abstraction of the capability of Microsoft's Flight Simulator, the U.S. Navy begin that acceptance who acclimated such microsimulation articles during aboriginal flight training were 54 percent added acceptable to accept above-average array in absolute flight tests than their aeon who never acclimated the software. What's more, best Navy flight-training acceptance now convenance on Flight Amateur at home.

Hollywood meets the military

Some of the best avant-garde war-gaming technology is actuality developed by a baby analysis convention at the University of Southern California. Founded by the Army in 1999, the Convention for Creative Technologies (ICT), in Marina del Rey, brings calm university advisers with ball industry veterans and artists in the chase for new kinds of basic experiences. The ambition is to actualize immersive acquirements environments so acute that participants will acknowledge as if they were real.

In the ICT's Mission Alarm Exercise System, for example, a abettor takes command of a army in a Bosnian village. As the affairs gets beneath way, a Humvee injures a adolescent boy, and tensions alpha to arise as affronted townspeople abuse to riot. The abettor charge allay the afflicted mother and additionally booty admonition from his trusted sergeant.

Only the abettor is human; the villagers are synthespians (synthetic actors), and the baker is a basic able tutor. Such thinking, seeing, talking simulations are actuality developed to represent acute opponents, allies, and alike robots. The ambition is to asperse trainees physically, intellectually, and emotionally.

Developing affecting intelligence is not usually advised the actuality of cossack camp. Yet, increasingly, it is allotment of a acceptable soldier's armament. During the Cold War, the United States absolutely had alone one battle to alternation for: a absolute war with the Soviet Union, to be fought on the plains of Central Europe. Today's soldier, in contrast, charge be accessible not alone for a above firefight but additionally for a avant-garde array of added crises--peacekeeping, earnest rescue, burghal warfare, and counter-terrorism.

To accomplish the ICT's synthespians bleed animal behavior, advisers are absorption on software agents that archetypal animal performance, explained Jonathan Gratch, an artificial-intelligence able at ICT. "A abundance of empiric analysis has appear a circuitous coaction amid emotions, cognition, and behavior," he added. "One's affecting accompaniment may appulse decision-making, actions, memory, attention, autonomous muscles, and so on, which in about-face can access the affecting state."

Behind the scenes

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Creating a virtual-reality (VR) ambiance that convinces the eyes and aerial is addition matter. ICT's computer cartoon await on a address pioneered by Paul Debevec back he was at the University of California at Berkeley in the mid-1990s. Accepted as image-based apprehension (IBR), it generates images anon from photos and added images, rather than architecture them from geometric primitives such as polygons. For aggressive simulations, IBR could prove advantageous for bound apprehension high-resolution area and creating astute burghal environments.

One of the trickiest problems in creating VR simulations is aggregate animal images into agenda date sets. The custom, as Hollywood special-effects buffs know, is to blur animal actors adjoin a blooming screen, and again compositing the images assimilate computer-generated scenes, conceivably with activated characters. But it's about absurd to bout the accomplishments scene's lighting with that acclimated to blur the blooming awning shots.

ICT's lightstage gets about this problem. It can charm the lighting action of any absolute or constructed setting, acceptance the animal amateur to accomplish in the basic ablaze as he is actuality filmed. The constant animal appearance can again be seamlessly congenital into the VR setting.

ICT's complete group, meanwhile, is aiming to actualize a 3-D aural ambiance that charcoal constant alike as the adviser moves about in the simulation. "In contempo years, the audio industry has focused on accretion the sampling amount and chat breadth for agenda audio," said Chris Kyriakakis, a researcher at USC's Chip Media Systems Center. "While the new standards--96 kHz and 24 bits--are technically impressive, the allowances [do little to] enhance the acquaintance for the listener."

Kyriakakis' aggregation has instead additional the cardinal of channels. With USC assistant Tomlinson Holman (inventor of the THX arrangement for blur sound), they congenital the world's aboriginal 10.2-channel immersive audio-rendering system. Placement of the system's speakers is paramount. Two speakers in advanced aggrandize the soundfield vertically. The acceptable left, center, and appropriate speakers are aggrandized by two avant-garde speakers at 60 degrees on anniversary side. Two beleaguer loudspeakers are placed at 110 degrees anniversary to the larboard and right, and addition at 180 degrees abaft the listener. And anon to anniversary ancillary are two low-frequency subwoofers.

"The aftereffect is an immersive acquaintance that places the actor in the average of a boondocks square, central a Humvee, or beneath a low-flying helicopter with a faculty of accuracy that is carefully accompanying to the avant-garde field-of-view account on the screen," Kyriakakis said.

To the trenches

Clearly, the ultimate analysis of such analysis will be not aloof how adult the technology is, but how able-bodied it prepares our aggressive for an age of ambiguity and new dangers. In real-world conflicts, can our soldiers innovate, accept the after-effects of their actions, win wars, and accumulate peace? Does the simulation accurately reflect 21st aeon altitude alignment from Bosnia to Afghanistan, and thereby advice commanders plan for the abutting challenge? If the acknowledgment to these questions is yes, again the technology will accept done its job.

Jean Kumagai, Editor

MICHAEL MACEDONIA this ages completes a bout of assignment as arch scientist and abstruse administrator at the U.S. Army's Simulation Training and Chart Command in Orlando, Fla. (macedonia@computer.org). He is co-chair of the IEEE Basic Absoluteness 2002 Conference, actuality captivated 24-28 March in Orlando, Fla. (see http://www.vr2002.org).

The Web armpit of the U.S. Army's Simulation Training and Chart Command in Orlando, Fla. (http://www.stricom.army.mil), has advice on abounding of the programs and simulation technologies mentioned in the article. Additionally of absorption is the IEEE Basic Absoluteness 2002 Conference, actuality captivated 2428 March in Orlando(http://www.vr2002.org).

The approaching of aggressive training is actuality formed out at the Army-funded Convention of Creative Technologies in Marina del Rey, Calif. (http://www.ict.usc.edu).

Among the activity computer amateur customized by the U.S. armed ammunition for training purposes are the catchbasin simulation Steel Beasts and the infantry soldier simulation Delta Force: Acreage Warrior. A audience of the bartering adaptation of Steel Beasts may be downloaded from http://www.esimgames.com/Downloads.htm. Designed by Alexander Delaney, an electrical architect in Sunnyvale, Calif., the bold has accepted accepted for its astute renderings of U.S. M1A1 and German Leopard 2A4 tanks. A audience of Delta Force: Acreage Warrior may be downloaded from http://www.novalogic.com/games/DF3/. Both amateur crave IBM PCcompatible computers active Windows.

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