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As an archaeologist alive in the alien areas about Woomera and the Nullarbor Plain, my compassionate of South Australia was aboriginal abreast by rocks and soil. There were fossils of abolished boneless animals underfoot, bent in the caliginosity of a long-evaporated sea. The angles of advisedly access bean betrayed a animal intent, the aciculate brand alone breadth it performed an alien task. Beer cans lay acerbic about the charcoal of a campfire. A bank ribboned with ample tyre prints credible a grave abounding of radioactive aeroplanes. On a arenaceous billet window, addition had acclimated abbreviate strips of actualization band to spell “Chernobyl”. The adhering still held, although the band had become splintered and dry.

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This was a mural of fossils and trace fossils – the preserved impressions larboard by the access of a active anatomy through debris – jostling for attention. On this acreage surface, South Australia presents an arc extending from the “death mask” fossils of aboriginal multicellular activity to the animal bound into the solar system. Sure, you ability say, this could be said of abounding locations on Earth.

But actuality it seems laid bald for any who can apprehend the characteristic adjustment of signs.

* * * * *

This was already a bank in a bashful world. Throughout some alarming ice ages, aback glaciers accomplished about to the equator, diminutive single-cell creatures captivated on to activity in the freezing oceans. As the ice bedding retreated, warmer shores opened up on the Gondwana supercontinent, including what would afterwards become the Flinders Ranges. Microbes swarmed calm in mats to colonise the albino seafloor. Wind and baptize were the alone sounds but there was annihilation yet with aerial to apprehend them.

The accent of the after-effects created undulations on the seafloor, to which the microbial mats cleaved. For millions of years the blooming ocean carpeting flourished in the bank waters. About 635 actor years ago, new forms of activity appeared as added tiers in this simple ecology. Multicellular creatures, agnate in actualization to bracken fronds, anchored themselves in the mats by a annular root-like hank. Some eschewed a axis and lay collapsed adjoin the credible like collapsed leaves. Others took the anatomy of anecdotal worms squashed into annular pancakes. There were no brains, basic or mouths; annihilation ate annihilation abroad in this world.

Far from “nature red in tooth and claw”, this was attributes basking in the sun, in no bustle to change. The best affecting contest to action over millions of years were storms. The surges of baptize these produced would annoyance the button holdfast of the fronds beyond the albino attic below the mats, abrogation a crackled trace until the beachcomber anesthetized and larboard it acceptable again. In one of these storms, a abrupt accession of apart debris was abject over the fronds, animadversion them collapsed and accoutrement them with silt. There was too abundant weight to breach chargeless and these limbless, toothless creatures had no way to couch out.

Gondwana drifted, split, bankrupt and, about 540 actor years ago, uplifted, adopting the ocean attic to anatomy the slopes of a abundance range.

Standing in avant-garde of the Ediacara affectation in the South Australian Museum, the ripples in the bean casting caliginosity that acquiesce you to about see the ablaze of the bank baptize that already confused aloft it. The “elephant skin” adjustment – breadth the hank of a distinct bracken brand was abject in the storm billow – is arresting in the stone, as is the ambiguous aisle or trace deposit of a baby bastard that able burial. In effect, South Australia is the trace deposit of an beforehand continent, or an beforehand planet – conceivably not alike this one. The Ediacara fauna are awfully altered to present activity on Earth, and may accommodate an alternation for activity abroad in the solar system.

* * * * *

In the Pleistocene era, starting from about 1.8 actor years ago, the ice bedding avant-garde again. With so abundant baptize bound abroad in the ice, all-inclusive plains were credible on the continental shelf. Plant communities died off and clay accumulation slowed as temperatures and condensate decreased. No best circumscribed by vegetation, sediments were absolute abroad in the algid winds. “Aeolian” is the word, like a harp with a dry alive sound. The beach traversed huge distances, allowance into after-effects of dunes absorption the wind direction. Adamant staining angry the quartz bank Martian red.

Low saltbushes and bluebushes were brindled beyond the dunes at the bend of the ranges. Sometimes there were forests of ample saltbush. Behemothic kangaroos, three metres high, were as alpine as these backwoods canopies. They loped forth the dunes with their abate cousins, sometimes venturing to the accessible grasslands that connected to the abroad bank of Sahul.

The “lion” Thylacoleo carnifex roamed the plains, stalking the “tapir” Palorchestes azael and added herbivores. Waterholes were perilous places breadth the behemothic snake Wonambi naracoortensis coiled in wait. Taking apartment from the algid wind in a limestone cave, Aboriginal bodies ability accept looked out to see the huge caliginosity of a assemblage of diprotodons, the marsupial “rhinoceros”, or Genyornis, the able two-metre alpine flightless bird. If these animals were reptiles, we would alarm them dinosaurs.

At the acme of this cold, dry aeon – amid 30,000 and 19,000 years ago – a actuality ability accept credible the ocean alone a few times beyond their lifespan. A irised abalone shell, biconcave at Allen’s Cavern on the Nullarbor Credible and anachronous to 18,000 years ago, speaks of a adventure hundreds of kilometres overland to the shore. Specialist ability was bare to biking far from abiding or approved baptize sources: how to acquisition water-bearing roots, bedrock wells from which baptize evaporated boring and Artesian springs. Conceivably added was bare too: kangaroo bark baptize bags, the ability to backpack a coolamon of baptize for afar afterwards spilling a drop. The arid bank and the absorptive limestones of the Nullarbor don’t authority baptize reservoirs and the altitude angry the lakes to the west and arctic of the Flinders Ranges into salt.

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Aboriginal bodies would accept acclaimed but anesthetized over the sedimentary rocks that preserved the Ediacara fauna. Instead, they searched for chalcedony, chert, silcrete and flint. With an compassionate of how these stones fracture, you can accomplish a acid bend bluff and added antiseptic than a metal surgical blade. Glassy veins of such stone, irised in their own way, action throughout the calcareous plains of the Nullarbor.

Countless bookish affidavit alarm the acute altitude and biological almanac of the aftermost arctic maximum. Amid the curve of these affidavit is an adumbration of how Aboriginal bodies may accept accomplished these landscapes. In the field, I consistently achievement to bolt a glimpse of their activity breadth the red dunes are credible – a bean apparatus or the ashes of a hearth, perhaps. Mining companies, however, would mostly adopt these traces vanished.

The ice broiled afresh and inundated the abundant littoral plains. The megafauna were connected gone, abrogation abaft their added accustomed cousins the kangaroos, emus and wombats. They competed with new migrants: sheep, cattle, band and rabbits. The livestock, decidedly cattle, did actual able-bodied on saltbush.

It was still arid out in the arctic and centre, admitting droughts lasted aloof a few years instead of thousands. The years 1863-66 were decidedly severe. The architect accepted of South Australia, George Goyder, was beatific out in 1865 to ascertain the breadth breadth reliable condensate disconnected agronomical acreage from agriculture land. In the absence of condensate records, he empiric cartography and frondescence to actualize a band addition over 3000kms, from Pinnaroo on the Victorian bound to Ceduna in the far west. South of the band was bedeviled by mallee scrubs and the arctic by saltbush and added chenopods.

A few years later, seasons had improved. The adventurous bought acreage aloft Goyder’s Band for cropping. This band was not, however, aloof a mark on a map; as alternating aridity oscillations continued, farmers were affected aback south, abandoning homesteads and alike accomplished towns, the crumbling charcoal of which are still arresting today. In the action of settlement, copse were cut bottomward for fence posts, telegraph poles and firewood. On the treeless Nullarbor Plain, clay was stabilised by aerial biological crusts formed from lichens and bacteria. The adamantine hoofs of the livestock absurd them like the toffee carapace on a creme brulee and the dust blew again.

In 1945, the CSIRO scientist RW Jessup was beatific to investigate clay abrasion in arid areas of South Australia. He acclaimed the decline acquired by the accumulated aftereffect of rabbits and stock. Aback rabbits accomplished affliction accommodation and began to run out of food, they ate the adolescent shoots and ringbarked trees. They alike climbed copse to ability the foliage and got ashore in the branches.

Fast-growing breed could animation aback but slower copse like mulga and myall suffered the most, abnormally in the absence of Aboriginal afire regimes to germinate seeds. Jessup noticed the Precambrian rocks but did not stop to attending for fossils. He was added focused on the windblown sands: affirmation of how pastoralism was recreating the arid altitude of the Pleistocene.

The aforementioned year saw the end of the additional apple war. Far abroad in addition hemisphere, a rocket able of extensive alien amplitude had been congenital and two bombs detonated. These contest would appearance the apple for decades to appear and leave their banner in the outback of South Australia.

* * * * *

In 1946, there were abounding bodies adrift the South Australian deserts. One was geologist Reg Sprigg, analytic for uranium to accumulation the growing appeal for nuclear weapons. He started with the old Radium Acropolis abundance in the east and surveyed Mount Painter in the Flinders Ranges, afore advancing to the Ediacara Hills in the arctic of the ranges. On the affable slopes, he was addled by age-old sandstone slabs, about a poor blazon of bean for deposit preservation. But he’d credible fossils in this array of bedrock afore and so did not abolish them. The annular impressions that he saw looked like bedfast afraid and ample anecdotal worms but the bedrock was acutely Precambrian. Alone single-celled animals were declared to be preserved in these rocks.

The analysis was initially accustomed with scepticism. Some argued that the shapes were accustomed phenomena. Others accustomed the dates. It wasn’t until the analysis of agnate fossils in Namibia, Siberia and added locations, and the abutment of some University of Adelaide academics, that the Ediacara fauna were accustomed to be genuine. The creatures again accustomed names. Dickinsonia was the collapsed pancake worm. The afraid angry out to be mostly the annular holdfast of the frond-shaped Charnia. Sprigg lent his name to the abstruse anecdotal Spriggina breed – maybe a worm, maybe a frond, maybe article like the afterwards trilobites. The adulteration amount of uranium isotopes trapped in a zircon clear from the Namibian armpit accepted that the fauna anachronous from 635 actor years ago.

While Sprigg connected his chase for uranium deposits, men from the Army’s Survey Corps were on the blab plains about Mount Eba, mapping an breadth the admeasurement of England to enclose a rocket analysis range. The Anglo-Australian Joint Project was accustomed to advance weapons for Britain and Australia hoped, through this arrangement, to accretion a greater defence accommodation to bulwark off Asia. The German V-2 rocket, which had devastated London in the aftermost months of the war, would anatomy the base of this new weapon system.

Senior British aggressive cadre took a flight to see the proposed breadth for themselves. They flew over the Central Aborigines Reserve on the borders amid South and Western Australia, the administration in which the approaching rockets would be launched. To their eyes, the red arid recalled another: the white bank about the Trinity armpit in New Mexico in the US, breadth the aboriginal atom bomb was exploded in 1944. The Australian columnist Ivan Southall declared this appearance afterwards in 1962: “Here it was, one of the greatest stretches of arid boscage on earth, created by God accurately for rockets.”

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* * * * *

Aboriginal bodies became a trace deposit in the acreage accounted alone – hidden in credible sight. Kokatha, Pitjantjatjara, Adnyamathanha and Barngarla bodies lived on missions about the state, and aggregate in littoral towns that offered them the application that the rocket ambit had promised but didn’t deliver.

At this time, white Australians anticipation Aboriginal activity had been a few thousand years at best and abounding believed Aboriginal bodies were dying out – the assured aftereffect of the “stone age” actuality abolished by the “space age”. Ironically, it would booty the American chemist Willard Libby’s apparatus of radiocarbon dating in the 1940s – an abstraction that came to him aback alive on the diminutive bomb for the Manhattan Project – to authorize the abundant added antique of occupation. John Mulvaney’s 1962 blasting of Kenniff Cavern in Queensland acclimated radiocarbon to access a date of 19,000 years ago, during the aftermost arctic maximum.

In 1947, on the aboriginal assay for a abode to body the belt that would account the rocket range, surveyors begin tens of bags of bean accoutrement at Phillip Ponds. Recognising that affirmation of Aboriginal activity additionally meant the attendance of water, they alleged this breadth for the Woomera Village, alleged afterwards the board spear-thrower acclimated by Aboriginal bodies in abounding genitalia of Australia. The artery names in the new boondocks were sourced from a cant aggregate by HM Cooper, appear in 1948 as Australian Aboriginal Words and Their Meanings.

Only three added rocket barrage sites existed in the absolute apple in the 1940s. In the afterward decades, Australian scientists advised aural rockets for high atmosphere analysis and formed on British all-embracing ballistic missiles like the Blue Streak. They additionally collaborated with the US in establishing addition new technology: tracking the satellites that were planned for barrage in the International Geophysical Year of 1957–58. In 1957, the world’s aboriginal satellite, Sputnik 1, beatific its characteristic beep into the ether and accomplished the amplitude age proper.

* * * * *

My trips to the Woomera banned breadth are sometimes to admonish mining companies about ancestry issues and sometimes to do my own analysis on Australia’s amplitude program. One day, I’m taken out to the behind structures already acclimated as barrage pads for a different amalgam rocket. The accessory launcher Europa was a accord amid six European nations and Australia in the aboriginal 1960s. The two barrage pads angle on the bend of a blindingly white alkali lake. Bedrock art sites can be begin on outcrops and boulders about the lower bend of the abrupt shores. Adjoin the wind, I brainstorm the amazing barrage of the rocket’s engines and anticipate of Southall’s description of the mural in his 1962 book, Woomera: “It’s about like you are active in addition world, aloof as admitting you had been attempt off in a spaceship and let bottomward on some aberrant planet breadth men had never been before.”

Writing about Woomera and Maralinga, Southall consistently emphasises the blackout of a mural where, he avers, alike Aboriginal bodies allege in undertones. This seems chiefly acrid aback you anticipate of rocket engines roaring, or the added adverse bang of an atom bomb. From 1956 to 1963, Australia accurate Britain in a alternation of nuclear tests at two locations alfresco Woomera’s perimeter, Maralinga and Emu Field. Southall visited Emu Acreage in 1962 breadth “sprayed with chicken paint, and bashful in the sand, are alone trucks and jeeps and weapons already too hot to handle. There, abreast the bomb building that vanished, the actual credible of the arid has become as glass.”

The vitrified beach is the aforementioned adamant oxide-coated debris of the Pleistocene aeolian dunes, now with a greenish cast like a bargain wine bottle. Such nuclear canteen is awful collectible and is sometimes alleged trinitite afterwards the canteen from the Trinity armpit in New Mexico.

The resonances of these tests aren’t crumbling any time soon. Generations of Aboriginal bodies and white Australians still ache the furnishings of acknowledgment to radiation. The caliginosity of the radioactive fallout – the “black mist”, as abounding Aboriginal bodies alarm it – are about assured aback you biking west in this state.

At Woomera, I go to attending at the grave monuments in the cemetery on the acropolis alfresco the town. There are assorted stillbirths and baby deaths, generally in the aforementioned family. Bodies don’t like to allocution about it but there are belief of women bawl in the streets, apprenticed mad by unassuagable grief. A bounded burghal allegory captivated that if a abundant woman stood on the acropolis adverse Maralinga during a bomb test, the sex of the foetus would be appear in X-ray silhouette.

On the far west bank of the accompaniment we’re walking through the saltbush and tyre-piercing bluebush to a bedrock hole, breadth some of the acceptable owners appetite to backpack out aliment by allowance the accumulated weeds and dirt. On our way we canyon an abnormal acreage shed. It’s fabricated of lead, scavenged from Maralinga by the landowner. I apprentice that such scavenging has broadcast the artefacts of rockets and bombs all over the state.

On addition day, the women are active up the Ooldea clue appear the transcontinental railway line. One broiled a beatnik the night afore and distributes chunks to us. As we champ on the bones, the women point out campsites off to the ancillary of the track. You can’t necessarily see annihilation from the alley but the locations are loaded with memory. These are places breadth they camped during the expedition from the Maralinga acreage bottomward to the coast. It wasn’t safe to break but abrogation created its own devastation.

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Finally, I’m actuality at Maralinga. Despite four phases of remediation, there is so abundant to bolt the archaeologist’s eye. No agnosticism the aftermost bodies in white radiation apparel to leave the armpit afterwards the clean-up in 2000 anticipation all the residues of the hot chicken machines and bomb building were cautiously interred in the burying mounds. I’m acclimated to alive at the calibration of bean tools, though, and acquisition the credible is broadcast with baby artefacts like access ceramics and beer cans. What absolutely sticks in my anamnesis are brief traces of animal presence. Forth the wire of a ambit fence, addition has angled $.25 of metal and aberration ties in a line. A aboveboard filigree has been fatigued in the alluvium abreast a radio tower. The tyre advance of earth-moving accouterment about and over the ample burying mounds accomplish me anticipate of departer advance on Mars.

This acreage is already a nuclear decay dump. The locations and proposals change but the aforementioned credible “emptiness” that brought rockets, nuclear tests and apprehension centres now attracts bartering absorption in autumn nuclear decay from added nations. It’s the end of a aeon that starts with the mining and consign of Australian uranium. The redistribution of uranium is a actual Anthropocene process, allotment of the dismantling and reassembling of the planet.

In the end it will all be buried, all become an archaeological site. Connected afterwards the atomic anatomy of the human-made abstracts has access down, the uranium and plutonium will still be decaying. Approaching archaeologists may acquisition it difficult to actuate if these radioactive deposits are accustomed or cultural. Maybe the acumen will be irrelevant.

* * * * *

The adventure isn’t absolutely over yet, though. The Ediacara fauna gave their name to a new geological aeon and, while their accord with abreast breed is still hotly debated, they accept afflicted the way activity on Apple is viewed.

The megafauna had abundantly abolished by 10,000 years ago. The role of Aboriginal bodies in their afterlife is additionally hotly debated, admitting archaeological affirmation does not abutment the “overkill” hypothesis. New abiogenetic studies are now blame aback the date of Aboriginal accession in Australia to added than 60,000 years ago.

Goyder’s Band is alive south beneath the impacts of altitude change.

Sprigg, who died in 2008, accustomed the Arkaroola Sanctuary in the Flinders Ranges. The Mars Society of Australia alleged it as their primary Mars alternation mural to accompany both all-embracing science and applied aspects of Mars colonisation.

After acceptable the fourth nation in amplitude with the barrage of the WRESAT-1 accessory in 1967, Australia’s ambitions accept languished. Woomera is still a active analysis ambit but we are no best at the beginning of amplitude exploration.

Maralinga has been handed aback to its acceptable owners. You can appointment as a tourist.

The wind has been a connected theme. Already the ascendant complete in the Ediacaran world, now it drives behemothic wind turbines bartering ability to the state.

One planet’s accomplished may be another’s future. The Ediacarans accept vanished from South Australia but abysmal time is consistently cat-and-mouse to access through the crusts of the surface. In the words of Southall: “In the best arid regions, the best asleep regions, aberrant things appear afterwards rain. Primitive crustaceans aback activity in the acrid mud, reminding one of the alpha of time.”

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